Students interpret multiplication as equal groups, arrays, rectangular area, and multiplicative comparisons, connecting factors and products through equations, diagrams, repeated addition, and the commutative and associative properties. They recall multiplication facts through $12 \times 12$, recognize whole-number patterns, apply the distributive property, multiply numbers up to four digits by one-digit factors and two two-digit factors, and multiply by multiples of 10 using place-value reasoning, partial products, area models, and the standard algorithm. They estimate whole-number products by rounding or using compatible numbers and solve one- and two-step multiplication and multiplicative comparison problems with unknown factors, quantities, or products.