Students read, write, expand, compare, order, round, and identify the place value of whole numbers through billions, and use estimation to assess sums, differences, products, and quotients. They accurately add, subtract, multiply, and divide multi-digit whole numbers, including division by one- and two-digit divisors, using standard algorithms, partial products or quotients, powers of ten, remainders, divisibility rules, and multi-step problem-solving strategies. They apply operation properties and order of operations, evaluate powers and parentheses, represent squares and cubes, identify factors, multiples, primes, composites, and factor pairs, and determine prime factorizations, common factors and multiples, greatest common factors, and least common multiples.